Shaykh Yusuf al-Maqassari: Islam, resistance, and intellectual circulations in the early modern Indian Ocean

In 2026, Indonesia and South Africa will mark 400 years since the birth of Shaykh Yusuf. This essay explores his intellectual, spiritual and political impact from the Far East to Africa.

By APIPUDIN APIPUDIN and ASLAM FATAAR

Shaykh Yusuf al-Maqassari (1626–1699) was a key intellectual and spiritual figure within the early modern Indian Ocean world (15th–18th century).

Born in South Sulawesi, Indonesia, he became a distinguished Islamic scholar and resistance leader against Dutch colonial expansion. His forced exile by the Dutch East India Company (VOC) took him across multiple regions, including Ceylon and, ultimately, the Cape of Good Hope, where he played a foundational role in establishing Islam in South Africa.

However, his significance extends beyond anti-colonial resistance; his movements facilitated the transregional circulation of Islamic scholarship, particularly within Sufi networks across Southeast Asia, the Arabian Peninsula, and Africa.

This article explores Shaykh Yusuf’s intellectual mobility within the interconnected maritime networks of the early modern Indian Ocean, highlighting the region as a dynamic hub of knowledge production and religious exchange.

While traditional scholarship has often positioned the Near East as the epicentre of Islamic thought, this study highlights the Malay world’s contributions to shaping early modern Islamic discourse. By tracing Shaykh Yusuf’s journey—from his studies in the Middle East to his exile and influence in VOC-controlled territories—this article repositions his legacy within the broader intellectual and political currents of the Indian Ocean.

 

This article moves beyond a biographical approach by situating Shaykh Yusuf within the transregional flows of ideas, resistance, and Islamic scholarship that defined the early modern period. His life illustrates how Muslim scholars navigated colonial displacement and adapted their teachings to new socio-political contexts. This article contributes to a growing historiography that recognises the Indian Ocean as a critical arena for the circulation of religious thought, resistance movements, and intellectual exchanges that shaped the modern Islamic world.

From Nelson Mandela to Shaykh Yusuf al-Maqassari: Legacies of resistance and solidarity

On December 5, 2013, South Africa mourned the passing of Nelson Mandela, one of the 20th century’s most iconic leaders. Mandela dedicated his life to the struggle against apartheid, a brutal system of racial segregation that marginalised the Black majority in South Africa. His decades-long fight for justice, which included 27 years of imprisonment, culminated in his historic election as South Africa’s first Black president in 1994. Mandela’s vision of equality and freedom inspired global movements for human rights and democracy.

Mandela’s journey of resistance resonates deeply with the legacy of Shaykh Yusuf al-Maqassari, a 17th-century scholar, spiritual leader, and anti-colonial figure from South Sulawesi, Indonesia.

Exiled to the Cape by the Dutch East India Company (VOC), Shaykh Yusuf became a pivotal figure in South African history. Arriving in Cape Town in 1694, he spread Islam and offered spiritual guidance and leadership to enslaved people, political exiles, and other marginalised communities. Shaykh Yusuf fostered solidarity through his teachings and provided a foundation for identity and resistance among the oppressed.

Spreading Islam among South Africa’s oppressed communities offered a vital source of hope and empowerment. Shaykh Yusuf’s contributions transcended religious practice; they nurtured a new collective consciousness, enabling enslaved and displaced individuals to resist the dehumanising forces of colonialism. His enduring legacy in South Africa reflects the transnational nature of resistance and spiritual solidarity, bridging histories between Southeast Asia and Africa.

Shaykh Yusuf’s influence continues to be recognised internationally. In 1995, Indonesia honoured him as a National Hero for his contributions to resistance against colonialism. In 1997, President Suharto’s visit to Shaykh Yusuf’s tomb in Cape Town reaffirmed his symbolic role in connecting Indonesia and South Africa. Subsequent visits by Indonesian leaders further underscore his transnational significance and the enduring relevance of his legacy.

Below, we explore the life and legacy of Shaykh Yusuf al-Maqassari, examining how his resistance, spirituality, and teachings shaped identity and solidarity among marginalised communities. His story is a powerful example of the intersection between faith, resistance, and transnational histories, offering lessons relevant to contemporary struggles for justice and freedom.

 

Short biography of Shaykh Yusuf al-Maqassari

Shaykh Yusuf al-Maqassari, also known as Shaykh Yusuf Taj al-Khalwati al-Maqassari (1626–1699), was a prominent scholar from Makassar, a significant port city in eastern Indonesia. In 2026, it will mark 400 years since his birth.

His full name was Muhammad Yusuf bin Abd Allah Abu al-Mahasin al-Taj al-Khalwati al-Maqassari (Azra, 2004, p. 87). Makassar’s strategic location connected the Malay Peninsula and Sumatra to New Guinea, with its Strait serving as a vital route for traders travelling as far as the Philippines and the South China Sea (Knaap & Sutherland, 2004, p. 3).

Shaykh Yusuf was born on July 3, 1626, to Aminah, the daughter of Dampang Ko’mara. Although his father’s identity remains uncertain, Aminah later married Sultan Alauddin (r. 1593-1639), ruler of the Sultanate of Gowa (Jappie, 2018, pp. 31-32). Gowa, an Islamic sultanate in South Sulawesi, rose to prominence in the mid-16th century, becoming an influential trading power. Sultan Alauddin’s embrace of Islam in 1605 marked the kingdom’s formal Islamisation, followed by territorial expansion between 1608 and 1611, which solidified Gowa’s dominance in South Sulawesi (Ricklefs, 2001, p. 57; Hamid, 1994, p. 10). By Shaykh Yusuf’s birth, Gowa was an Islamic and economic hub in eastern Indonesia.

Shaykh Yusuf began his Islamic education in Sulawesi under the guidance of local scholar Daeng ri Tasammang. Later, he studied fiqh, tawhid, and tasawwuf with Sayyid Ba Alwi ibn Abd Allah al- Allamah al-Tahir in Bontoala and Jalal al-Din al-Aydid in Cikoang (Azra, 2004, p. 88). The presence of Islamic teachers and Sufi scholars played a crucial role in the region’s Islamisation and education. Makassar’s position as an international trading entrepôt attracted merchants, sailors, and clerics from across the globe. By the early 16th century, Muslim communities and rulers were documented as far as Maluku (Cortesao, 1944, p. 212). Records note the activities of the Khalwatiyah Sufi order in Makassar by 1688, underscoring the region’s deep-rooted Islamic traditions (Laffan, 2015, pp. 22-23).

In 1644, Shaykh Yusuf left Gowa to further his education. Sources differ slightly on the timeline: Abu Hamid states he departed on September 22, 1644, travelling through Banten and Aceh before reaching Makkah (Hamid, 1994, pp. 89-90), while Basang notes his departure on October 20, 1644, at the age of 18 (Basang, 1981, p. 105). Both Banten and Aceh were prominent centres of Islamic learning, with Sufi orders such as Qadariyah, Naqshbandiyah, and Khalwatiyah flourishing in Banten (Tjandrasasmita et al., 2009, p. 119). Shaykh Yusuf reportedly sought to study under Nur al-Din al-Raniri in Aceh, though the scholar had left before his arrival (Hadi, 2004, p. 148; Laffan, 2015, p. 21; Azra, 2004, p. 89).

From Aceh, Shaykh Yusuf continued to India, studying under Umar ibn Abd Allah Ba Shayban, a student of al-Raniri. He then travelled to Yemen, where he studied in Zabid under Muhammad ibn Abd al-Baqi al-Naqshbandi, Sayyid Ali al-Zabidi, and Muhammad ibn al-Wajih al-Sa’di al-Yamani (Azra, 2004, p. 89). His journey culminated in the Haramayn (Makkah and Medina), where he studied under prominent scholars such as Ahmad al-Qushashi, Ibrahim al-Kurani, and Hasan al-Ajami. During this period, he crossed paths with Abd al-Rauf al-Sinkili, who shared the same teachers (Azra, 2004, pp. 90-91).

Shaykh Yusuf’s works reflect a significant influence from the doctrine of Wahdat al-Wujud (Unity of Being), pioneered by Ibn Arabi (1165-1240). His exposure to scholars like Muhammad Abd al-Baqi al-Mizjaji and the writings of Muhammad ibn Fadlullah al-Burhanpuri shaped his spiritual philosophy (Rafudeen, 2023, p. 2). Additionally, Shaykh Yusuf’s teacher, Ibrahim al-Kurani, played a pivotal role in transmitting Sufi-inspired doctrines to Southeast Asia, responding to the enthusiasm of Malay-Muslim scholars (Laffan, 2015, p. 20). In Damascus, Shaykh Yusuf joined the Khalwatiyah Sufi order under Ayyub al-Khalwati, a close associate of Ahmad al-Qushashi (Azra, 2004, p. 92; Laffan, 2015, p. 22).

Upon completing his studies, Shaykh Yusuf returned to Indonesia in 1667, settling in Banten. Sultan Ageng Tirtayasa (r. 1651-1682) appointed him Shaykh al-Islam, the highest Islamic authority at the court (Rafudeen, 2023, p. 2). His arrival in Banten strengthened ties with Sultan Ageng, reportedly to unite resistance efforts against the Dutch East India Company (VOC) (Hamid, 1994, p. 95). VOC records refer to him as “Che Issoff,” “Sjeech Josef,” and the “Makassarese-Bantenese high priest” (Jappie, 2018, p. 41), reflecting their surveillance of his activities. Shaykh Yusuf actively supported Sultan Ageng’s struggle against the VOC, continuing the resistance even after Sultan Ageng’s capture in 1683 (Jappie, 2018, p. 43).

Shaykh Yusuf al-Maqassari’s legacy endures as both a scholar and a symbol of resistance. His intellectual contributions remain influential, particularly in tasawwuf and his role in spreading Sufi teachings in Southeast Asia. His life reflects a fusion of spiritual devotion, transregional scholarship, and political resistance, solidifying his place as a key figure in the history of Islam in Indonesia and beyond.

 

Culture of travel

Scholars studying Shaykh Yusuf al-Maqassari focus on his political and intellectual journey. However, few place him within the broader context of the early modern changes in the Indian Ocean. His ability to travel without significant obstacles and his decision to assist the Sultanate of Banten rather than the Sultanate of Gowa upon returning from the Haramayn remain points of intrigue. Moreover, his successful adaptation as a political exile in Ceylon and South Africa raises further questions. To fully understand his political and intellectual career, it is essential to place Shaykh Yusuf within the context of the early modern Indian Ocean. Viewing him solely within local or national frameworks does not fully illuminate his significance.

The early modern period marked a shift from “local” to “global” orientations, with interconnections between regions erasing rigid ethnic and political boundaries. As Sanjay Subrahmanyam notes, this was a time of “a new sense of the limits of the inhabited world,” driven by travel and geographic redefinition (Subrahmanyam, 1997, p. 737). This expansion of travel cultures was not solely a European phenomenon but was part of a broader, interconnected world. Alongside exploration, the early modern period also saw changing relationships between settled agricultural societies and nomadic groups, with the rise of global trade altering societal structures, urbanisation, and demographics (Subrahmanyam, 1997, p. 738). Shaykh Yusuf al-Maqassari grew within this context of expanded travel cultures and the transformative effects of global trade in the Indian Ocean. Born in Makassar, a key node in the Indian Ocean’s trade network, he was immersed in the cosmopolitanism and travel culture that flourished in Eastern Indonesia during this time.

Travel culture was a defining characteristic of early modern Indian Ocean societies, facilitating human movement beyond ethnic and political barriers and fostering cosmopolitan connections. This culture also spurred the development of travel literature, such as the seyahatname (travelogues). A notable example of a scholar influenced by this culture is Nur al-Din al-Raniri, whom Shaykh Yusuf admired. Born in Gujarat in the late 16th century, al-Raniri’s career as Shaykh al-Islam in Aceh is a testament to the power of travel culture. Al-Raniri’s arrival in Aceh in 1637 was part of a mission to challenge the Wahdatul Wujud doctrine (Hadi, 2004, p. 154). His acceptance in Aceh was facilitated by his intellectual abilities and the strong connections between Gujarat and Aceh, established through trade long before his arrival (Alam & Subrahmanyam, 2005, p. 211). Likewise, Shaykh Yusuf’s rise to prominence in the Sultanate of Banten in the late 17th century was aided by similar networks of travel and exchange.

Shaykh Yusuf’s travels to Banten, Aceh, India, and the Middle East exemplify the ease with which people in the Indian Ocean world could move between regions. The Bugis-Makassar network, in particular, reinforced the culture of travel, enabling Shaykh Yusuf to study and secure an influential position in Banten. Infrastructure, including well-developed ports and transportation networks, further supported his travels, facilitating movement across the region. For example, the conflict between Gowa and the VOC in 1669 prompted many Makassar people to migrate to Banten (Laffan, 2015, p. 22). Shaykh Yusuf led a contingent of 5,000 soldiers, including Makassar, Bugis, and Malay warriors, in resistance against the VOC in West Java (Hamid, 1994, p. 102). The European colonial powers, notably the VOC, significantly reshaped travel culture by stimulating migration, trade, and war.

The development of ship technology, utilising the monsoon winds, further facilitated travel along the Indian Ocean’s maritime routes. This enabled pilgrims, scholars, traders, and others, including Shaykh Yusuf, to journey from South Sulawesi to the Haramayn via Banten, Aceh, India, and Yemen. These movements helped to forge vibrant social and cultural interactions across the Indian Ocean.

One notable outcome of these interactions was the spread of tasawwuf (Sufism) in Southeast Asia. Sufi scholars travelled along the Indian Ocean trade routes, contributing to the spread of Islamic mysticism. Shaykh Yusuf himself was instrumental in this movement, especially after his exile to Ceylon by the VOC. In Ceylon, he wrote influential works on tasawwuf, such as Al-Nafhatul Al-Saylaniyyah fil Minhatul Rahmaniyyah (The Ceylonese Breeze in the Gift of the Most Merciful), where he reflects on his spiritual journey and the advice he gave to his followers (Al-Maqassari, 2023, p. 23). The exchange of ideas across the Indian Ocean was critical in transmitting Sufi teachings.

Shaykh Yusuf’s connections with other Sufi scholars, including those from the Middle East and South Asia, further demonstrate the strength of the travel culture in the Indian Ocean world. Through his interactions with prominent figures such as Shaykh Ibrahim al-Kurani, a disciple of Ahmad Qushashi, Shaykh Yusuf entered various Sufi orders, including Qadiriyah, Naqshibandiyah, and Shattariyah (Rafudeen, 2023, p. 2). His works, such as Taj al-Asrar fi Tahqiq (The Crown of Secrets in the Attainment of Spiritual Realisation), reflect the influence of these Sufi teachings, underscoring the role of travel in shaping his spiritual and intellectual development (Rafudeen, 2023, p. 90).

Thus, the culture of travel in the early modern Indian Ocean was a driving force behind the intellectual, religious, and political movements of figures like Shaykh Yusuf al-Maqassari. His ability to navigate and adapt across different cultural and political contexts was facilitated by the interconnected world of the Indian Ocean, where travel, trade, and intellectual exchange flourished. This global network allowed for the dissemination of ideas, the spread of Sufism, and the creation of enduring scholarly and spiritual legacies.

Global trade and the political and intellectual legacy of Shaykh Yusuf

Shaykh Yusuf’s political and intellectual trajectory is deeply intertwined with the dynamic flows of global trade, particularly in the Indian Ocean region. This interconnectedness facilitated the movement of capital, people, ships, commodities, ideas, and religious teachings, which shaped the worldviews of scholars like Shaykh Yusuf. Understanding his journey requires us to recognise the profound transformations brought about by the rise of global trade in the early modern period.

Islam began to spread in Southeast Asia long before the 13th century. However, during the early modern era, Islam’s influence in Indonesia significantly expanded with the intensification of global trade. Shaykh Yusuf al-Maqassari, born in 1626 in South Sulawesi, was part of this transformative period. By 1605, the Sultanate of Gowa in Sulawesi had embraced Islam (Hamid, 1994, p. 10), marking a pivotal moment in the region’s religious and political history. This era, characterised by the growth of global trade across the Indian and Pacific Oceans, played a crucial role in the spread of Islam throughout Southeast Asia. The Indian Ocean, in particular, acted as a conduit for the movement of ships, traders, scholars, and pilgrims, thereby linking Southeast Asia with the Middle East. The exchanges in this maritime region facilitated the expansion of Islam alongside various political, social, and cultural shifts.

Global trade during the early modern period significantly impacted the relationship between agricultural, urban, and nomadic communities. It also prompted changes in agrarian practices, demographic shifts, urbanisation, and settlement patterns. The arrival of European traders in the Indian Ocean added new complexities to these dynamics, especially with the increased demand for spices and bullion. Traders became central figures in this period, contributing not only to the economy but also to the social and cultural transformations of the time (Subrahmanyam, 2015, p. 10). The arrival of European traders, particularly the Portuguese and later the Dutch, challenged existing power structures and provoked tensions with Muslim traders, leading to conflicts and negotiations that would shape the region’s cultural landscape.

Shaykh Yusuf al-Maqassari emerged as a key figure in two regions crucial to global trade flows: South Sulawesi and Banten. After his studies in the Middle East, he settled in Banten, where he became the Shaykh al-Islam. Banten, located on the north coast of Java, had been an important urban centre since the 11th and 12th centuries. The region’s craft industries, including textile production, pottery, and gold jewellery, showcased its connections to China and other Southeast Asian parts (Wibisono, 1997, p. 10). Pepper, a highly sought-after commodity, was one of Banten’s key trade products, further enhancing its strategic significance. With the fall of Malacca to the Portuguese in 1511, Banten became an essential hub for Muslim traders, offering an alternative to Portuguese-controlled ports.

Banten’s role as an international trade centre became more pronounced with the influx of European traders. Dutch records indicate that the markets of Banten were filled with traders from various parts of the world, including Portugal, Arabia, China, and India, as well as Southeast Asian traders from regions such as Ternate, Bugis, and Makassar (Wibisono, 1997, p. 11; Ekadjati, 1997, p. 20). Banten’s strategic location allowed it to flourish as an international port, attracting Muslim traders who sought to bypass Portuguese-controlled trade routes. This environment provided fertile ground for the development of Islam, with Sultan Ageng Tirtayasa of Banten playing a crucial role in supporting the faith’s spread.

Shaykh Yusuf’s association with Banten was not just intellectual but also political. His link with Sultan Ageng Tirtayasa, the ruler of Banten, deepened after Shaykh Yusuf’s return from the Middle East. Sultan Ageng Tirtayasa, with his strong political and economic influence, was deeply involved in international trade. Banten’s prosperity, bolstered by its position within the global trade network, enabled it to support the growth of Islam and fostered Shaykh Yusuf’s role as a religious leader. During heightened political tension, Shaykh Yusuf’s presence in Banten underscored his opposition to the growing influence of the Dutch East India Company (VOC).

The VOC’s expansion in the 16th and 17th centuries significantly altered the political and economic landscape of the Indian Ocean—European traders, seeking to control lucrative spice trade routes, allied with local rulers to monopolise trade. After the Portuguese conquest of Malacca in 1511, many Muslim traders moved to Banten to avoid Portuguese dominance. The Dutch, who followed the Portuguese in attempting to control the region’s trade, encountered resistance from local rulers such as Sultan Ageng Tirtayasa of Banten. In 1655, Banten refused to renew its trade agreement with the VOC, sparking military conflict between the two powers (Tjandrasasmita, 1997, p. 36). Similarly, the VOC’s attempts to monopolise trade in South Sulawesi led to disputes with the Sultanate of Gowa.

Shaykh Yusuf, aware of the VOC’s growing influence in the region, strongly opposed their expansionist agenda. His resistance to the VOC culminated in his exile to various VOC-controlled colonies, such as Batavia, Ceylon, and Cape Town, where he was placed among other political exiles. Despite the challenges of exile, Shaykh Yusuf’s intellectual and religious influence continued to thrive as he contributed to the growth of Islam in these colonial settings.

The VOC’s establishment of fortified colonial cities in key trade centres, including Batavia, Ceylon, and Cape Town, highlighted the global trade network’s significance. These cities were administrative hubs and served as sites for political exiles, including those who opposed the VOC’s colonial ambitions. The global trade network, characterised by the movement of goods, labour, and people, brought together diverse populations in these colonial cities. Exiled political figures, labourers, and enslaved people interacted in these spaces, creating a complex and multicultural society.

The demand for labour in VOC-controlled colonies, such as Cape Town, led to the importation of enslaved people from Africa and South Asia. These enslaved people, along with exiled political figures like Shaykh Yusuf, formed part of the diverse, marginalised communities in these colonial spaces. The VOC’s need for labour to sustain its economic activities, particularly in agriculture, reinforced the dynamics of slavery and forced migration in the Indian Ocean world.

Cape Town, in particular, became a focal point of the VOC’s trade empire. It served as a critical stopover for ships travelling between Europe and the East Indies, and its agricultural production, including grain and wine, became increasingly important in the 17th century. The arrival of enslaved people from Southeast Asia, South Asia, and Africa helped fuel the colony’s growth and further integrated it into the global trade network (Worden, 2012, p. 12).

The early modern period, marked by the intensification of global trade, profoundly impacted the political, social, and cultural dynamics of the Indian Ocean world. Shaykh Yusuf al-Maqassari’s life and intellectual legacy exemplify how religious and political resistance intersected with the rise of global trade. His journey reflects the complexities of a world shaped by colonial ambitions, the spread of Islam, and the transformative power of global commerce.

 

Conclusion: Reframing Shaykh Yusuf’s Transoceanic legacy

Shaykh Yusuf al-Maqassari’s life exemplifies the dynamic flow of knowledge, resistance, and religious thought across the early modern Indian Ocean. While often framed within nationalist or anti-colonial narratives, his influence extended far beyond these confines, shaping intellectual and spiritual currents from Southeast Asia to Africa. His journey—spanning Sulawesi, Banten, Aceh, the Arabian Peninsula, Ceylon, and Cape Town—demonstrates how scholars, traders, and political actors moved within vast transoceanic networks, contributing to the transmission of Islamic teachings and articulating resistance to colonial domination.

This article has repositioned Shaykh Yusuf within these broader global networks, emphasising his role as a spiritual guide and mediator of cultural and intellectual exchanges. His mastery of Sufi traditions, particularly those of the Khalwatiyah, Naqshbandiyah, and Qadiriyah orders, speaks to the importance of mobility in shaping Islamic scholarship. Moreover, his exile—though intended as a means of suppression—enabled him to cultivate new communities of faith and resistance, demonstrating the resilience of Islamic thought under colonial rule.

Further research should explore how his teachings influenced subsequent generations, particularly among the marginalised communities of the Cape and the wider Indian Ocean world. His intellectual legacy, rooted in resistance and adaptation, offers valuable insights into how religious scholars negotiated shifting political landscapes. Scholars can deepen their understanding of transregional exchanges in the early modern period by moving beyond narratives of exile and focusing on Shaykh Yusuf’s contributions to Islamic knowledge production. Ultimately, Shaykh Yusuf’s life challenges Eurocentric histories, highlighting the agency of Muslim scholars in shaping global intellectual and spiritual traditions.

Professor Apipudin Apipudin is based in the Arabic Studies Programme, Department of History, Faculty of Humanities, University of Indonesia.

Professor Aslam Fataar  is Research Professor – Higher Education Transformation, Department of Education Policy Studies, Stellenbosch, Stellenbosch University.

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